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Originally Published 10 September 2019
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The Atherosclerosis Risk Variant rs2107595 Mediates Allele-Specific Transcriptional Regulation of HDAC9 via E2F3 and Rb1

Matthias Prestel, PhD, Caroline Prell-Schicker, PhD, Tom Webb, PhD, Rainer Malik, PhD, Barbara Lindner, Natalie Ziesch, Monika Rex-Haffner, BSc, … Show All … , Simone Röh, Dipl, Thanatip Viturawong, PhD, Manuel Lehm, MD, Michal Mokry, MD, PhD, Hester den Ruijter, PhD, Saskia Haitjema, MD, Yaw Asare, PhD, Flavia Söllner, MA, MSc, Maryam Ghaderi Najafabadi, MSc, Rédouane Aherrahrou, PhD, Mete Civelek, PhD, Nilesh J. Samani, MD, Matthias Mann, PhD, Christof Haffner, PhD, and Martin Dichgans, MD [email protected]Author Info & Affiliations
Stroke
Volume 50, Number 10
https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.026112
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Abstract

Background and Purpose—

Genome-wide association studies have identified the HDAC9 (histone deacetylase 9) gene region as a major risk locus for atherosclerotic stroke and coronary artery disease in humans. Previous results suggest a role of altered HDAC9 expression levels as the underlying disease mechanism. rs2107595, the lead single nucleotide polymorphism for stroke and coronary artery disease resides in noncoding DNA and colocalizes with histone modification marks suggestive of enhancer elements.

Methods—

To determine the mechanisms by which genetic variation at rs2107595 regulates HDAC9 expression and thus vascular risk we employed targeted resequencing, proteome-wide search for allele-specific nuclear binding partners, chromatin immunoprecipitation, genome-editing, reporter assays, circularized chromosome conformation capture, and gain- and loss-of-function experiments in cultured human cell lines and primary immune cells.

Results—

Targeted resequencing of the HDAC9 locus in patients with atherosclerotic stroke and controls supported candidacy of rs2107595 as the causative single nucleotide polymorphism. A proteomic search for nuclear binding partners revealed preferential binding of the E2F3/TFDP1/Rb1 complex (E2F transcription factor 3/transcription factor Dp-1/Retinoblastoma 1) to the rs2107595 common allele, consistent with the disruption of an E2F3 consensus site by the risk allele. Gain- and loss-of-function studies showed a regulatory effect of E2F/Rb proteins on HDAC9 expression. Compared with the common allele, the rs2107595 risk allele exhibited higher transcriptional capacity in luciferase assays and was associated with higher HDAC9 mRNA levels in primary macrophages and genome-edited Jurkat cells. Circularized chromosome conformation capture revealed a genomic interaction of the rs2107595 region with the HDAC9 promoter, which was stronger for the common allele as was the in vivo interaction with E2F3 and Rb1 determined by chromatin immunoprecipitation. Gain-of-function experiments in isogenic Jurkat cells demonstrated a key role of E2F3 in mediating rs2107595-dependent transcriptional regulation of HDAC9.

Conclusions—

Collectively, our findings imply allele-specific transcriptional regulation of HDAC9 via E2F3 and Rb1 as a major mechanism mediating vascular risk at rs2107595.

Introduction

Stroke is the leading cause of permanent disability and the second most common cause of death worldwide.1 GWAS (Genome-wide association studies) have mapped > 35 genomic loci for stroke most residing in noncoding DNA.2 However, at many loci the causal variant, gene, and mechanism remain undetermined3 thus impeding the identification of novel pathways and possible targets for intervention. The HDAC9 (histone deacetylase 9) gene region on chromosome 7p21.1 represents the strongest risk locus for atherosclerotic stroke (large artery stroke)2 and has further been established as a major risk locus for myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease,4 and peripheral artery disease,5 thus implying a broader involvement in atherosclerosis and a major impact on human health.
rs2107595, the lead SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) in recent GWAS for stroke2,6 and coronary artery disease4 resides in noncoding DNA 3′ to the HDAC9 gene. rs2107595 colocalizes with DNase I hypersensitive sites and histone modification marks H3K27ac and H3K4me1 (ENCODE [Encyclopedia of DNA Elements],7 genome build hg19) indicating a possible involvement in gene regulatory mechanisms.8
We and others recently provided evidence for a central role of HDAC9 expression levels in atherogenesis and stroke: first, HDAC9 deficiency attenuates atherogenesis in mouse models of atherosclerosis.9,10 Second, HDAC9 expression levels were found to be elevated in human atherosclerotic plaques.11 Third, gene expression studies in peripheral blood mononuclear cells revealed an association between the rs2107595 risk allele and elevated levels of HDAC9 mRNA expression with a gene dosage effect.10 The same variant further associates with both carotid intima-media thickness and the presence of atherosclerotic plaques in the common carotid artery.11,12 Collectively, these findings point to the possibility that the rs2107595 region mediates disease risk by influencing HDAC9 expression levels.
In the current study, we aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms linking genetic variation in the rs2107595 region to HDAC9 expression. For this, we employed targeted resequencing of the HDAC9 locus, proteome-wide search for allele-specific nuclear binding partners, ChIP [chromatin immunoprecipitation], genome-editing, reporter assays, circularized chromosome conformation capture, and gain- and loss-of-function experiments in cultured human cell lines and primary vascular and immune cells. We provide evidence for a regulatory effect of rs2107595 on HDAC9 expression involving a direct physical interaction between the rs2107595 region and the HDAC9 promoter. We further demonstrate a role of the E2F3 (E2F transcription factor 3) and Rb1 (Retinoblastoma 1) proteins in mediating allele-specific effects of rs2107595 on HDAC9 transcription.

Methods

All data and supporting materials have been provided with the published article. Tables and a detailed description of the methodology used for Targeted Resequencing, Proteome-Wide Analysis of SNPs, ChIP, Cell culture and Transfection, RNA isolation and cDNA synthesis, Protein isolation and Immunoblotting, Gene expression analysis, Cell cycle synchronization, the Isolation and Culture of HAoSMCs (Human Primary Aortic Smooth Muscle Cells) and human blood-derived MΦ (macrophages), Dual luciferase reporter assay, Generation of genome-edited Jurkat cell lines, Circular Chromosome Conformation Capture, and Cell proliferation assays is provided in the online-only Data Supplement.
Experiments in primary human cells were approved by the local institutional review board (project No. 17–693). Primary human blood-derived MΦ were obtained from healthy volunteers. Primary HAoSMC were obtained from Dr Civelek (University of Virginia).

Statistical Analysis

The Shapiro-Wilks Test was used to determine the distribution of data sets. Normally distributed data were statistically analyzed with the parametric t test, else a Wilcoxon rank-sum test or Wilcoxon signed-rank Test were applied. Data are represented as mean values and SEM unless specified otherwise. Significance is depicted as follows; *P<0.05; **P<0.01; and ***P<0.001. HDAC9 regional plots (Figure 1A) were constructed using locuszoom. The upper panel uses data from the large artery stroke analysis of the MEGASTROKE collaboration.2
Figure 1. The rs2107595 risk variant interferes with E2F3 binding. A, Top: regional association plot of the HDAC9 (histone deacetylase 9) gene region (18 123 000-19 188 000, GRCh37/hg19) showing association signals around rs2107595 for large artery stroke in the MEGASTROKE data set.2 Middle: association plot of the same region showing variants identified by targeted resequencing. Bottom: −log10 P values for the conserved sequence element around rs2107595, the intergenic region between HDAC9 and TWIST1, and the HDAC9, TWIST1, and FERD3L genes, calculated by variant-collapsing methods (SKAT and SKAT-O). The conserved 2.5 kb sequence block around rs2107595 (position marked by the dashed line) significantly associated with large artery stroke (P=0.017). B, Identification of allele-specific binding partners of rs2107595 using PWAS. E2F3, Rb1, TFDP1, SAMD1, and L3MBTL3 preferentially interacted with the common allele (G) whereas NFATC2 preferentially bound to the risk allele (A). C, Position Weight Matrix20 for the consensus site of the human E2F3 protein aligned to the genomic sequence surrounding rs2107595. D, Chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments showing in vivo binding of E2F3 to the rs2107595 region in HeLa cells. (n=7–8, mean±SD. Wilcoxon signed-rank test). GWAS indicates Genome-wide association studies; and SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism.

Results

Targeted Resequencing of the HDAC9 Region Supports Candidacy of rs2107595 as the Causal Variant for Large Artery Stroke

rs2107595 gave the strongest signal in previous GWAS for atherosclerotic phenotypes,2,6 (Figure 1A, upper panel) and had a >95% posterior probability of being the only causal SNP at this locus in the most recent stroke GWAS from the MEGASTROKE consortium.2 To further examine the candidacy of rs2107595 as the causal variant at this locus while also capturing rare variants, low-frequency variants, and haplotypes, we performed targeted resequencing of the HDAC9 gene region including the nearby TWIST1 (twist basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor 1) and FERD3L (Fer3 like BHLH transcription factor) genes in 176 patients with large artery stroke and 176 stroke-free controls (Figure 1A, middle panel; Figure I in the online-only Data Supplement). Genotypes for rs2107595 showed 99.8% agreement with previously obtained microarray and TaqMan genotyping data demonstrating the reliability of our sequencing approach. Overall, we identified 9428 variants (8496 SNPs, 932 insertions/deletions) and 169 haplotype blocks but no rare or low-frequency variants in the rs2107595 haplotype block. Following correction for multiple testing, none of the variants or haplotypes significantly associated with large artery stroke thus arguing against variants with large effect sizes in this region. Next, we used variant-collapsing methods (SKAT [sequence kernel association test] and SKAT-O [optimized sequence kernel association test]) to analyze the conserved 2.5 kb sequence block around rs2107595, the intergenic region between HDAC9 and TWIST1, and the HDAC9, TWIST1, and FERD3L genes (Figure 1A, lower panel). SKAT-O analyses revealed a significant association (P=0.017) for the conserved sequence block encompassing rs2107595, while all other equally sized sequence blocks showed higher P values. Of note, all proxy SNPs (r2 with rs2107595 >0.8) localize outside the conserved sequence block. Collectively, these findings support rs2107595 as the causative variant at this locus. Hence, we focused on this variant in our functional analyses.

The rs2107595 Risk Variant Interferes With E2F3 Binding

The rs2107595 region shows enrichment for marks of regulatory chromatin (DNase I hypersensitive sites, H3K27ac, H3K4me1, and H3K9me3) in various cell types listed in HaploReg,13 Roadmap Epigenomics,14 and ENCODE7 (Tables I and II and Figure IIA in the online-only Data Supplement) suggesting a potential involvement of rs2107595 in transcriptional regulation. To identify transcription factors with allele-specific binding at rs2107595 and hence a possible role in transcriptional regulation, we performed proteome-wide analysis of SNPs. This approach is based on the interaction of synthetic oligonucleotides with metabolically labeled nuclear factors that are subsequently identified by mass spectrometry.15 Forty-one-bp-SNP-centered oligonucleotides differing only at rs2107595 (Table III in the online-only Data Supplement) were incubated either with light or heavy isotope labeled nuclear factors from HeLa cells. A comparison of the heavy/light ratios of all binding proteins revealed 6 factors surpassing the predefined FDR of 0.01: NFATC2 (nuclear factor of activated T cells 2), a member of the nuclear factor of activated T-cell family,16 L3MBTL3 (lethal (3) malignant brain tumor-like protein 3), a putative polycomb group protein functioning as transcriptional regulator in large protein complexes,17 SAMD1 (sterile alpha motif domain containing 1), a protein with a potential role in immobilizing LDL (low-density lipoprotein) in the arterial wall,18 and all constituents of the E2F3/TFDP1 (transcription factor Dp-1)/Rb1 complex (Figure 1B).
E2F3 and TFDP1 represent transcription factors of the E2F and DP1 families known to complex with Rb proteins.19 The observed enrichment of E2F3 at the common allele is supported by the prediction of an E2F3 consensus site20 within the common allele sequence, which is disrupted by the risk allele (Figure 1C). To validate the allele-specific binding of E2F3, we further incubated biotinylated synthetic oligonucleotides with nuclear extracts from HeLa cells and purified the assembled allele-specific nucleoprotein complexes by DNA pull-down. Subsequent immunoblotting revealed enriched binding of E2F3 to the common allele (Figure IIB in the online-only Data Supplement). Finally, we performed ChIP experiments in HeLa cells, which are homozygous for the rs2107595 common allele and thus suited to explore E2F3 binding in vivo. ChIP revealed a significant occupancy of E2F3 at rs2107595 (Figure 1D). Given these results and the known role of E2F and Rb proteins in transcriptional regulation,21,22 we considered these proteins to be strong candidates for regulating HDAC9 expression.

E2F3 and Rb1 Regulate HDAC9 Expression

To determine the effect of E2F and Rb proteins on endogenous HDAC9 expression, we next conducted gain- and loss-of-function (Table IV in the online-only Data Supplement) experiments in HeLa cells. Overexpression of E2F3a resulted in a 6-fold increase in HDAC9 mRNA levels compared with empty vector control. In contrast, overexpression of Rb1 led to a reduction in HDAC9 expression (Figure 2A and Figure IIIA and IIIB in the online-only Data Supplement). siRNA mediated knockdown of E2F3, E2F4, or both resulted in a significant decrease of HDAC9 mRNA compared with nontargeting control (Figure 2B and Figure IIIC and IIID in the online-only Data Supplement). In contrast, knockdown of Rb proteins caused a significant increase in HDAC9 expression (Figure 2C and Figure IIIE and IIIF in the online-only Data Supplement).
Figure 2. E2F3 and Rb1 regulate HDAC9 (histone deacetylase 9) expression. A–C, Fold change (FC) in HDAC9 mRNA expression assessed in HeLa cells after (A) overexpression of E2F3a and Rb1, (B) siRNA mediated knockdown of E2F3 and E2F4, and (C) siRNA mediated knockdown of Rb1, Rbl1, and Rbl2. n=7. D, Cell cycle analysis by flow cytometry and propidium iodide staining in HeLa cells after cell cycle arrest at the G1/S boundary by hydroxyurea. HDAC9 expression is increased at the G1/S boundary and during S phase. (n=6–7; FC mean±SEM. Wilcoxon signed-rank test).
E2F and Rb act as transcriptional regulators of cell cycle genes. At the G1/S boundary repressive Rb proteins become phosphorylated by cyclin-dependent kinases and dissociate from E2F proteins, which then activate the expression of target genes.21,22 Hence, we analyzed cell cycle-dependent variations in HDAC9 expression. Synchronization of HeLa cells by hydroxyurea-induced cell cycle arrest at the G1/S boundary led to a significant increase in HDAC9 mRNA expression compared with untreated cells (Figure 2D). After release of the cell cycle arrest HDAC9 mRNA expression further increased during progression through S phase and declined on reaching G2, thus paralleling the activity of E2F proteins across the cell cycle.23

The rs2107595 Risk Variant Is Associated With Elevated HDAC9 Transcription

To examine the association between rs2107595 and HDAC9 gene expression in cells relevant to atherosclerosis, we first examined primary MΦ and HAoSMCs with defined carrier status at rs2107595. Proinflammatory MΦ were isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells obtained from healthy donors (GG genotype: n=7; GA: n=7; AA: n=5, matched for age and sex) and differentiated in vitro (Figure IVA in the online-only Data Supplement). On stimulation with TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor-alpha) and IFN-γ (interferon-γ), MΦ homozygous for the risk allele showed significantly elevated HDAC9 expression levels compared with MΦ homozygous for the common allele (Figure 3A). Gene expression analysis in cultured HAoSMC (GG genotype: n=9; AA: n=6) revealed no allele-specific differences in HDAC9 expression before and after 4 or 8 hours of TNFα stimulation (Figure 3B). Also, there was no allele-specific effect on TWIST1 expression in HAoSMCs and MΦ (Figure IVB in the online-only Data Supplement and results not shown).
Figure 3. The rs2107595 risk variant is associated with elevated HDAC9 (histone deacetylase 9) transcription in human primary MΦ. A, Human blood-derived monocytes were differentiated in vitro to proinflammatory MΦ. On TNFα (tumor necrosis factor-alpha) and IFNγ (interferon-γ) stimulation MΦ homozygous for the risk allele displayed significantly higher HDAC9 expression levels compared with common allele carriers (GG: n=5; GA: n=5; AA: n=7). B, Cultured postmortem-derived HAoSMC showed no significant expression differences in unstimulated or TNFα-stimulated (4 h or 8 h) HAoSMCs. (GG: n=9; AA: n=6).
To examine the effects of rs2107595 on transcriptional regulation, we further performed luciferase reporter assays in T-lymphoid Jurkat cells, THP-1 acute monocytic leukemia cell line, and PMA (phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate)-induced THP-1 MΦ, HAoEC (human aortic endothelial cells), and HAoSMC. Forty-one bp-SNP centered fragments containing either the rs2107595 common or risk variant were cloned into a firefly luciferase reporter vector (Figure 4A) and tested for a cis-regulatory function by measuring luciferase activity after transient transfection. Transcriptional activity was significantly higher for the risk allele compared with the common allele both in Jurkat cells and PMA-induced THP-1 MΦ24 (Figure 4A) whereas, we found no allele-specific differences in HAoEC, HAoSMCs, and THP-1 monocytes, (Figure VA through VC in the online-only Data Supplement).
Figure 4. The rs2107595 risk variant is associated with elevated HDAC9 (histone deacetylase 9) transcription in reporter assays and genome-edited Jurkat cells. A, Risk allele associated with a significant increase in luciferase activity compared with the common allele in T-lymphoid Jurkat cells and PMA-induced THP-1 MΦ. B, Sanger sequencing of genome-edited Jurkat cells containing either the (*) common allele (G) or risk allele (A). C, rs2107595 risk allele-dependent increase in HDAC9 mRNA expression in genome-edited Jurkat cells. n=16 or 24, mean±SD. t test. D, Comparative expression analysis during cell cycle progression in isogenic Jurkat cells carrying either the common (G) or risk allele (A). HDAC9 expression levels increased during the first 8 h after hydroxyurea removal. Risk allele carrying cells showed a significantly increased expression of HDAC9 until 6 h. (mean±SD; t test).
Next, we specifically genome-edited rs2107595 in Jurkat cells using recombinant adeno-associated virus25 resulting in isogenic cells differing solely at rs2107595. Jurkat cells were chosen because of (1) their immunologic origin, (2) the presence of open chromatin marks both in the rs2107595 region (Figure II in the online-only Data Supplement) and HDAC9 promoter, and (3) their diploidy and heterozygosity for rs21075957,14,26 allowing a one-step editing procedure in either direction (Figure 4B). Cells homozygous for the risk allele exhibited 2-fold higher mRNA levels of HDAC9 compared with cells carrying the common allele (Figure 4C). Heterozygous cells displayed intermediate mRNA levels compatible with a gene dosage effect. TWIST1 and FERDL3 expression levels were below detection limit in these cells (data not shown). Collectively, these results show that rs2107595 regulates HDAC9 transcription in an allele-specific manner. We further examined allele-specific effects of rs2107595 on HDAC9 transcription across the cell cycle. After synchronization at the G1/S-boundary, HDAC9 levels were significantly elevated in risk allele cells compared with common allele cells (Figure 4D) in accordance with the results obtained in unsynchronized cells (Figure 4C). This difference was sustained for 6 hours after release of the hydroxyurea block. Because of the allele-specific effects on cell cycle associated HDAC9 expression, we analyzed the effect of rs2107595 on cell proliferation in genome-edited Jurkat cells. Pulse-chase labeling with the thymidine analog EdU and detection by flow cytometry revealed no allele-specific differences for rs2107595 (Figure VIA and VIB in the online-only Data Supplement).

The rs2107595 Region Physically Interacts With a HDAC9 Promoter

Given the observed effect of rs2107595 on HDAC9 transcription, we next tested for physical interactions of the rs2107595 region with the HDAC9 promoter by circularized chromosome conformation capture in isogenic Jurkat cells. Based on Jurkat cell-specific open chromatin structure (DNase I hypersensitive sites) and promoter information (H3K4me3),7 we selected the promoter viewpoint at nt ≈18 330 000. Mapping the circularized chromosome conformation capture-seq signals to the HDAC9 gene region revealed a significant interaction between rs2107595 and the promoter region in common allele (GG in Figure 5) but not in risk allele cells (AA) indicating allele-specific differences in chromatin organization. Analyses for an alternative HDAC9 promoter lacking detectable chromatin marks in Jurkat cells showed lower significance for allele-specific interactions at both viewpoints (Figure VII in the online-only Data Supplement). These results provide further mechanistic evidence for a role of the rs2107595 region in regulating HDAC9 transcription.
Figure 5. The rs2107595 region physically interacts with a HDAC9 (histone deacetylase 9) promoter. Domain plot of the circularized chromosome conformation capture (4C)-seq results obtained in isogenic Jurkat cells homozygous for the common (G) or risk allele (A). Shown are the significance levels of the 4C-seq signal coverage with viewpoints in the HDAC9 promoter (top) and rs2107595 region (bottom). For both viewpoints, results for individual alleles are depicted in the upper panels with difference plots depicted below. Region of interactions (arrows) are defined by an enrichment of covered fragends within a running window of 1 to 50 fragends. Gray boxes represent the location of the 4C viewpoints. DNase I hypersensitive sites and H3K4me3 histone marks are displayed at the top.

E2F3 Mediates Allele-Specific Effects of rs2107595 on HDAC9 Transcription

To determine whether the binding of E2F3 and Rb1 at rs2107595 observed in HeLa cells occurs in a truly allele-specific manner in vivo, we next performed ChIP experiments in genome-edited isogenic Jurkat cells. Since E2F3 and Rb1 control cell cycle progression at the G1/S boundary,23 we arrested these cells with hydroxyurea. On synchronization, we found a significantly enriched occupancy of E2F3 and Rb1 proteins at the common allele compared with the risk allele (Figure 6A and 6B), which was not present in unsynchronized cells (Figure VIIIA and VIIIB in the online-only Data Supplement) possibly reflecting cell cycle-dependent binding of E2F3 and Rb1 to the common allele.
Figure 6. E2F3 mediates allele-specific effects of rs2107595 on HDAC9 (histone deacetylase 9) transcription. A and B, Comparative chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments in isogenic Jurkat cells homozygous for the common (G) or risk allele (A). G1/S boundary arrested cells showed an enriched E2F3 (A) and Rb1 (B) occupancy in common vs risk allele cells at rs2107595. (n=6, mean±SEM, Wilcoxon rank-sum test). C, Overexpression of E2F3a resulted in a significant increase of the ratio between HDAC9 expression in cells homozygous for the rs2107595 common allele (G) vs cells homozygous for the risk allele (A). (n=8–10, mean±SD, t test). D, Proposed model for the regulatory effect of rs2107595 on HDAC9 expression by allele-specific binding of the E2F3/Rb1/TFDP1 complex. In the presence of the common allele (G) the E2F3/Rb1/TFDP1 complex is recruited to the rs2107595 region and mediates a repressive effect on HDAC9 transcription. The risk allele (A) disrupts binding of the E2F3/Rb1/TFDP1 complex, thus resulting in elevated HDAC9 expression.
Finally, to examine whether the allele-specific effects on HDAC9 transcription at rs2107595 are mediated by allele-specific binding of E2F3 and Rb1, we tested the influence of exogenous E2F3a and Rb1 expression in isogenic Jurkat cells. Compared with empty vector control, overexpression of E2F3a but not Rb1 resulted in a significant increase of the ratio between HDAC9 expression in cells homozygous for the common allele versus cells homozygous for the risk allele (Figure 6C and Figure VIIIC in the online-only Data Supplement). Collectively, these results suggest allele-specific interactions between rs2107595 and the HDAC9 promotor and show a mediating effect of E2F3 on HDAC9 expression via rs2107595 (Figure 6D).

Discussion

We present a mechanism by which a noncoding variant at the large artery stroke and coronary artery disease risk locus 7p21.1 regulates HDAC9 transcription. We show that rs2107595, the likely causal variant at this locus, has allele-specific transcriptional capacity and associates with elevated HDAC9 expression in cell types relevant to atherosclerosis. We further identify a physical interaction of the rs2107595 region with the HDAC9 promoter, demonstrate preferential binding of the E2F3/TFDP1/Rb1 cell cycle complex to the common allele, and show that E2F3 mediates HDAC9 transcription in an allele-specific manner. This novel mechanism for transcriptional regulation of HDAC9 by E2F3/Rb1 complexes provides a plausible mechanistic link between genetic variation at rs2107595 and disease risk.
Several lines of evidence point to rs2107595 as the causal variant mediating vascular risk: rs2107595 was the lead SNP in GWAS for stroke2,6 and coronary artery disease,4 it was the only variant contained in the 95% credible SNP set in the MEGASTROKE,2 and here using targeted sequencing and SKAT-O analyses we find no variants with large effect sizes in the HDAC9 region. A transcriptional effect of rs2107595 on HDAC9 expression is demonstrated by our results in genome-edited T-lymphoid Jurkat cells and in primary proinflammatory MΦ, and is further substantiated by the circularized chromosome conformation capture results, which showed a physical interaction between the rs2107595 region and the HDAC9 promoter. The directionality of the transcriptional effect was consistent with results from luciferase assays in Jurkat cells and PMA-induced THP-1 MΦ. It was further consistent with the effects on HDAC9 transcription reported previously for peripheral blood mononuclear cells10 in that the risk allele was associated with higher HDAC9 expression levels. Of note, however, our earlier observations in peripheral blood mononuclear cells did not allow attributing allele-specific effects to a specific genetic variant. As such, the current findings represent a major advance.
Our results suggest that the effects of rs2107595 on HDAC9 expression might be cell-type dependent. While the rs2107595 risk allele was associated with higher HDAC9 expression levels in proinflammatory human MΦ and genome-edited T-lymphoid Jurkat cells, we found no indication for an allele-specific effect in cultured HAoSMC. Similarly, luciferase assays showed a higher transcriptional activity with the risk allele in Jurkat cells and proinflammatory THP-1 MΦ but not in undifferentiated THP-1 monocytes, HAoSMCs and HAoECs. Genome-edited Jurkat cells showed a constitutive allele-specific effect on HDAC9 expression, but an inflammatory stimulus was required to uncover a risk allele-dependent increase in HDAC9 expression in THP-1 cells and proinflammatory human MΦ. This might be due to a cell-type-specific chromatin conformation affecting the accessibility of transcription factors and thus gene expression.14 Despite a cell cycle-dependent HDAC9 expression and the proposed role of HDAC9 in cell proliferation and cancer,27–30 we found no allele-specific effect on cell proliferation in isogenic Jurkat cells. However, this might relate to Jurkat cells lacking functional p53,31 which is transcriptionally regulated by HDAC9.30 Additional work is needed to determine a possible role of rs2107595-mediated control of HDAC9 in cell proliferation.
An allele-specific interaction between rs2107595 and E2F3/Rb1 complexes is supported by 4 independent lines of evidence: our proteome-wide analysis of allele-specific binding partners, DNA pull-down experiments in combination with immunoblotting, ChIP, and the presence of a consensus-binding site for E2F3 at the common allele. Importantly, the directionality was consistent across all approaches in that the risk allele disrupted binding to E2F3. There is evidence for a role of Rb in atherosclerosis.32 MΦ specific deletion of Rb has previously been shown to enhance atherosclerosis in ApoE deficient mice. Aside from their crucial function in cell cycle regulation, Rb and E2F proteins cooperatively regulate transcriptional programs for development, metabolism, and cell differentiation.21 For instance, both proteins are required for proper myeloid cell development33,34 and control migration and senescence of vascular SMC in human atherosclerotic lesions.35,36 E2F and Rb further induce foam cell formation through the mTor/SREBP-2 pathway on inflammatory stress.37 Hence, loss of Rb/E2F binding at the rs2107595 risk variant and the associated increase in HDAC9 expression might provide a proinflammatory environment promoting atheroprogression. HDAC9 is known to act as a proinflammatory factor,9,10,38–40 and a recent gene expression study in large atherosclerotic stroke patients found the rs2107595 risk allele to be associated with enhanced IL-6 (interleukin 6) signaling in peripheral blood.41 However, HDAC9 also mediates cholesterol efflux in mouse MΦ.9 Thus, there may be a synergistic effect of Rb/E2F-mediated HDAC9 expression on both cholesterol metabolism and inflammation in mediating atherosclerosis risk.39,41,42 Our proteome-wide experiment identified differential interactors aside from E2F3 and Rb proteins, and we cannot exclude a role of these factors in mediating allele-specific effects.17,43 Yet, the binding of 3 proteins belonging to the same complex (E2F3, TFDP1, and Rb1) together with our functional results strongly support a major role of E2F3/Rb1 in mediating the effects of rs2107595 on HDAC9 expression.
HDAC9 has emerged as a potential target for drug development. For one, there is evidence from different mouse models of atherosclerosis that lowering HDAC9 expression may attenuate atherogenesis.9,10 Second, rs2107595 has been associated with early stages of atherogenesis,11,12 which makes HDAC9 an attractive target for early intervention. Third, recent drug discovery programs have resulted in the development of selective class IIa HDAC inhibitors with reasonable specificity and inhibitory activity against HDAC9.44 Interest in HDAC9 further emerges from the observation that the HDAC9 locus is implicated in 3 major manifestations of atherosclerosis: stroke, coronary artery disease, and peripheral artery disease. More work is needed to better understand the mechanisms linking genetic variation in the rs2107595 region to atherosclerosis and stroke.

Acknowledgments

We thank Joseph R. Nevins and Alexander Brehm for providing reagents, Horizon Discovery, Cambridge, United Kingdom for support in generating genome-edited cell lines, Noortje A. M. van den Dungen for technical assistance and the Utrecht Sequencing Facility for performing sequencing of the circularized chromosome conformation capture libraries.

Supplemental Material

File (str_stroke-2019-026112_supp1.pdf)

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Published In

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Stroke
Volume 50 • Number 10 • October 2019
Pages: 2651 - 2660
PubMed: 31500558

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© 2019 American Heart Association, Inc.

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History

Received: 25 April 2019
Revision received: 4 June 2019
Accepted: 3 July 2019
Published online: 10 September 2019
Published in print: October 2019

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Keywords

  1. atherosclerosis
  2. chromosome
  3. coronary artery disease
  4. proteome
  5. transcription

Subjects

  1. Atherosclerosis
  2. Gene Expression and Regulation
  3. Ischemic Stroke
  4. Mechanisms

Authors

Affiliations

Matthias Prestel, PhD*
From the Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Germany (M.P., C.P.S., R.M., B.L., N.Z., M.L., Y.A., F.S., C.H., M.D.)
View all articles by this author
Caroline Prell-Schicker, PhD*
From the Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Germany (M.P., C.P.S., R.M., B.L., N.Z., M.L., Y.A., F.S., C.H., M.D.)
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Tom Webb, PhD
Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, Leicester, United Kingdom (T.W., M.G.N., N.J.S.)
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Rainer Malik, PhD
From the Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Germany (M.P., C.P.S., R.M., B.L., N.Z., M.L., Y.A., F.S., C.H., M.D.)
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Barbara Lindner
From the Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Germany (M.P., C.P.S., R.M., B.L., N.Z., M.L., Y.A., F.S., C.H., M.D.)
View all articles by this author
Natalie Ziesch
From the Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Germany (M.P., C.P.S., R.M., B.L., N.Z., M.L., Y.A., F.S., C.H., M.D.)
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Monika Rex-Haffner, BSc
Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max-Planck-Institute for Psychiatry, Germany (M.R.H., S.R.)
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Simone Röh, Dipl
Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max-Planck-Institute for Psychiatry, Germany (M.R.H., S.R.)
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Thanatip Viturawong, PhD
Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck-Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany (T.V., M.L., M. Mann)
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Manuel Lehm, MD
From the Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Germany (M.P., C.P.S., R.M., B.L., N.Z., M.L., Y.A., F.S., C.H., M.D.)
Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck-Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany (T.V., M.L., M. Mann)
Abteilung für Diagnostische und Interventionelle Neuroradiologie, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Munich, Germany (M.L.)
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Michal Mokry, MD, PhD
Department of Pediatrics (M. Mokry), University Medical Center Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Hester den Ruijter, PhD
Laboratory of Experimental Cardiology (H.d.R., S.H.), University Medical Center Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Saskia Haitjema, MD
Laboratory of Experimental Cardiology (H.d.R., S.H.), University Medical Center Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Yaw Asare, PhD
From the Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Germany (M.P., C.P.S., R.M., B.L., N.Z., M.L., Y.A., F.S., C.H., M.D.)
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Flavia Söllner, MA, MSc
From the Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Germany (M.P., C.P.S., R.M., B.L., N.Z., M.L., Y.A., F.S., C.H., M.D.)
Department of Physiological Chemistry, Biomedical Center Munich, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Germany (F.S.)
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Maryam Ghaderi Najafabadi, MSc
Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, Leicester, United Kingdom (T.W., M.G.N., N.J.S.)
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Rédouane Aherrahrou, PhD
Center for Public Health Genomics, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, (R.A., M.C.)
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Mete Civelek, PhD
Center for Public Health Genomics, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, (R.A., M.C.)
View all articles by this author
Nilesh J. Samani, MD
Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, Leicester, United Kingdom (T.W., M.G.N., N.J.S.)
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Matthias Mann, PhD
Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max-Planck-Institute for Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany (T.V., M.L., M. Mann)
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Christof Haffner, PhD
From the Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Germany (M.P., C.P.S., R.M., B.L., N.Z., M.L., Y.A., F.S., C.H., M.D.)
View all articles by this author
Martin Dichgans, MD [email protected]
From the Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Klinikum der Universität München, Germany (M.P., C.P.S., R.M., B.L., N.Z., M.L., Y.A., F.S., C.H., M.D.)
Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany (M.D.).
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Notes

*
Drs Prestel and Prell-Schicker contributed equally.
The online-only Data Supplement is available with this article at Supplemental Material.
Correspondence to Martin Dichgans, MD, Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, Feodor-Lynen-Straße 17, 81377 Munich, Germany. Email [email protected]

Disclosures

None.

Sources of Funding

This work was supported by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (CRC 1123 and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology), Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (e:AtheroSysMed), FP7/2007–2103 European Union project CVgenes@target (Health-F2-2013–601456), Leducq Foundation CADgenomics program, European Union Horizon2020 projects SVDs@target (No.66688) and CoSTREAM (No.667375), and the Vascular Dementia Research Foundation. Drs Webb and Samani are supported by the British Heart Foundation. Dr Samani is a National Health Research senior investigator. Dr Mann was funded by the Max Planck Society and Rédouane Aherrahrou by the American Heart Association. Dr Mokry is supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development, Dutch Heart Foundation and Leducq Foundation.

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The Atherosclerosis Risk Variant rs2107595 Mediates Allele-Specific Transcriptional Regulation of HDAC9 via E2F3 and Rb1
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